What is Periodontal Disease in Cats?

By Dr. Phil Good, DVM | Reviewed by Dr. Phil Good, DVM

Introduction

When discussing feline wellness, one of the most widespread yet frequently misunderstood conditions is periodontal disease in cats. At its core, this condition is a progressive, inflammatory infection of the gums and the underlying structural tissues that hold a cat’s teeth in place. While many pet owners might dismiss bad breath as a normal quirk of their feline companion, it is often the first glaring indicator of an active, brewing infection. Gum Disease in Cats is not merely a cosmetic issue; it is a significant medical condition that, if left untreated, can lead to chronic pain, tooth loss, and severe systemic health complications. In fact, veterinary epidemiological studies reveal that up to 70 percent of cats will develop some form of periodontal disease by the time they reach just three years of age.^[1]

To truly understand how this disease affects your cat, it is helpful to first understand the basic anatomy of a feline tooth and its supporting structures, collectively known as the periodontium. A cat’s tooth is divided into two main sections: the crown, which is the visible portion above the gumline covered by hard enamel, and the root, which extends deep below the gums into the jawbone. The periodontium consists of four critical components: the gingiva (the gums), the cementum (the tissue covering the tooth root), the periodontal ligament (the connective tissue that attaches the root to the bone), and the alveolar bone (the jawbone surrounding the root).^[2] Periodontal disease does not primarily attack the tooth itself; rather, it relentlessly attacks and destroys these four foundational supporting structures.

Consider a classic clinical presentation in veterinary practice. A charismatic Siamese cat named Oscar is brought into the clinic because his owner noticed he was dropping kibble from his mouth and shying away when his face was petted. A cursory glance at Oscar’s mouth reveals red, swollen gums and a heavy buildup of yellow-brown tartar. A comprehensive veterinary oral evaluation ultimately diagnoses Oscar with advanced periodontal disease. This scenario plays out daily in veterinary hospitals around the world. Recognizing that periodontal disease is a hidden, silent source of chronic pain is the first step toward proactive health management.^[3]

Because cats are notoriously skilled at hiding their discomfort, the disease can silently progress for years below the gumline, out of sight from even the most observant pet owners. The destruction of the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone is irreversible, making early detection and intervention absolutely critical. Through a combination of daily at-home dental care and routine professional veterinary assessments, the progression of this disease can be successfully halted, ensuring that your feline companion maintains a comfortable, functional, and pain-free mouth throughout their life.

What Causes Periodontal Disease in Cats?

The development of periodontal disease in cats is a dynamic and complex biological process that begins mere hours after a cat’s teeth have been thoroughly cleaned. The primary trigger for this condition is the continuous, daily accumulation of dental plaque. Initially, a microscopic layer of salivary proteins and glycoproteins, known as the acquired pellicle, forms over the clean enamel of the tooth. Within 24 hours, normal bacteria residing in the feline oral cavity begin to adhere to this sticky pellicle, multiplying rapidly to form a soft, off-white biofilm called dental plaque.^[4]

If this delicate plaque layer is not removed through the mechanical friction of tooth brushing or chewing on appropriate dental items, the bacteria within the biofilm undergo a dangerous transformation. Initially, the plaque is populated by gram-positive, aerobic (oxygen-breathing) bacteria. However, as the plaque thickens and extends beneath the gumline into the gingival sulcus, the oxygen supply is cut off. This environment favors the aggressive proliferation of gram-negative, anaerobic bacteria. These anaerobic bacteria produce powerful toxins and enzymes that directly damage the surrounding gum tissue, initiating the inflammatory cascade that characterizes periodontal disease.^[5]

Simultaneously, minerals from the cat’s saliva—specifically calcium and phosphorus—begin to precipitate into the soft plaque biofilm. This mineralization process hardens the soft plaque into a cement-like substance known as dental calculus, or tartar. This transformation can occur in as little as 48 to 72 hours. Once tartar has formed, it provides a porous, rough surface that allows even more plaque to adhere, creating a compounding cycle of bacterial growth and tissue inflammation. Tartar cannot be removed by brushing alone; it requires professional removal with specialized veterinary dental scaling equipment.^[6]

While the bacterial plaque initiates the disease, the actual destruction of the tooth’s supporting structures is largely driven by the cat’s own immune system. In a misguided attempt to clear the bacterial infection, the cat’s white blood cells flood the gingival tissues. These immune cells release inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines, prostaglandins, and matrix metalloproteinases. While intended to destroy bacteria, these potent enzymes inadvertently break down the cat’s own periodontal ligament and alveolar bone, leading to permanent structural loss and eventual tooth mobility.^[7]

Beyond the microscopic battle, several specific physical and environmental factors significantly increase a cat’s risk of developing severe periodontal disease. Genetics play a highly influential role in feline oral health. Some cats may be genetically predisposed to periodontal disease, often due to inherited differences in their immune response or the physical shape of their jaw. Purebred cats, particularly Oriental breeds like Siamese, Abyssinians, and Maine Coons, frequently present with earlier and more severe onset of gingival inflammation compared to mixed-breed cats.

Dietary habits also contribute to the rate of plaque and tartar accumulation. Cats fed a strictly soft, canned food diet may miss out on the mild mechanical abrasion provided by certain dental-specific dry kibbles. However, it is a common misconception that standard dry cat food cleans the teeth; most standard kibbles shatter upon impact and leave carbohydrate residue behind, offering no dental benefit unless specifically formulated with an interlocking fiber matrix designed for oral health. Therefore, lacking a consistent home dental hygiene routine is the single most significant lifestyle factor contributing to the disease.

Underlying systemic health conditions profoundly impact the oral cavity’s ability to defend itself against bacterial invasion. Cats suffering from immunosuppressive viral infections, such as feline leukemia virus (FeLV) or feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), possess a compromised cellular defense system, making them exceptionally vulnerable to rapid, devastating oral infections.^[8] Furthermore, chronic, untreated inflammation in the mouth places a massive burden on the entire body. The constant stream of bacteria and inflammatory markers entering the bloodstream can stress the kidneys, liver, and heart, and in severe cases of chronic tissue mutation and inflammation, it can complicate the diagnosis of oral tumors or mimic the aggressive tissue destruction seen in cat cancer, such as squamous cell carcinoma.

Symptoms of Periodontal Disease in Cats

Identifying the symptoms of periodontal disease in cats can be an incredibly challenging task for pet owners, primarily because felines are biologically programmed to mask their pain. In the wild, showing signs of weakness, illness, or oral pain makes a cat an easy target for larger predators. This deeply ingrained survival instinct means that a cat will often continue to eat, play, and behave somewhat normally even while enduring significant pain from deep dental infections. By the time a cat begins to show obvious outward signs of oral distress, the periodontal disease has typically reached an advanced, highly destructive stage.^[9]

Veterinary professionals categorize periodontal disease into four distinct stages, and the symptoms vary depending on the severity. Stage 1 periodontal disease is characterized strictly by gingivitis—inflammation of the gums without any loss of bone or structural attachment. Symptoms at this stage are usually limited to a mild red line along the margin where the gum meets the tooth, accompanied by early halitosis (bad breath). Importantly, Stage 1 is the only stage of the disease that is entirely reversible with professional cleaning and dedicated home care.

As the disease progresses into Stage 2 (early periodontitis) and Stage 3 (moderate periodontitis), the symptoms become more pronounced. Halitosis becomes severe and deeply offensive due to the volatile sulfur compounds released by the dying anaerobic bacteria in the deep periodontal pockets. The gums will appear dark red, swollen, and may bleed easily when the cat eats hard food or rubs its face against furniture. You may notice heavy, thick, yellow-brown calculus covering the crowns of the premolars and molars at the back of the mouth. At this stage, the cat’s body is fighting a chronic infection, and the continuous release of inflammatory hormones can induce insulin resistance, which is why chronic dental disease is frequently noted as a complicating factor in the management of diabetes in cats.^[10]

By Stage 4 (advanced periodontitis), more than 50 percent of the tooth’s supporting bone has been destroyed. The clinical signs of pain and dysfunction become impossible for the cat to hide. Owners may notice their cat dramatically altering its eating habits. The cat may eagerly approach the food bowl, take a bite, and then suddenly drop the kibble, crying out or violently shaking its head as the food strikes an exposed tooth root. They may begin chewing exclusively on one side of their mouth, leading to asymmetrical tartar buildup. Dysphagia, or difficulty swallowing, along with ptyalism (excessive, sometimes bloody drooling), are common red flags of severe oral pain.^[11]

Behavioral changes are often the most heartbreaking symptoms. A once-affectionate cat may become reclusive, hiding under the bed or exhibiting uncharacteristic aggression when someone attempts to touch their face or chin. You may observe the cat frantically pawing at its mouth as if trying to remove an invisible object. Because grooming requires the use of the teeth and tongue, a cat with a painful mouth will often cease grooming entirely, resulting in a dull, greasy, matted, and unkempt coat. Unexplained weight loss is also a major concern, as the sheer pain of eating eventually outweighs the cat’s drive to consume adequate calories. If you notice any combination of these symptoms, immediate veterinary intervention is required to alleviate your pet’s suffering.

Diagnosis for Cat Gum Disease

Securing an accurate and comprehensive diagnosis of periodontal disease in cats requires significantly more than a quick peek into a wide-awake cat’s mouth during an annual physical exam. While a veterinarian can identify obvious tartar, fractured crowns, or severe gingival redness during a standard wellness visit, this conscious evaluation only reveals the proverbial tip of the iceberg. Because 60 percent of a cat’s tooth structure is hidden beneath the gumline, a definitive diagnosis, staging, and treatment plan can only be formulated while the cat is placed under general anesthesia. The diagnostic process is systematic, meticulous, and relies on specialized veterinary dental instrumentation.^[12]

Visual Inspection

Once the cat is safely anesthetized and properly monitored, the veterinarian begins with a thorough visual inspection of the entire oral cavity. This initial assessment involves evaluating the external surfaces of the lips, cheeks, palate, tongue, and the visible crowns of every single tooth. The veterinarian looks for asymmetrical tartar accumulation, gingival recession (where the gums have pulled back to expose the delicate tooth roots), and gingival hyperplasia (overgrowth of gum tissue). Furthermore, a complete visual inspection is vital for identifying soft tissue abnormalities or oral tumors, ensuring that the overall cat’s oral health is properly evaluated before focusing strictly on the teeth. Plaque and calculus indices are visually graded to establish a baseline for the severity of the macroscopic disease.

Periodontal Probing

Following the visual assessment, the veterinarian utilizes a specialized, finely calibrated metal instrument known as a periodontal probe. This tool features tiny millimeter markings along its tip. The veterinarian gently slides the probe between the tooth and the surrounding gum tissue into the gingival sulcus. In a healthy feline mouth, the normal sulcus depth is remarkably shallow, typically measuring between 0.5 and 1.0 millimeters.^[13] If the probe slips deeper than 1 millimeter, it indicates that the periodontal ligament has been destroyed, creating a pathological “periodontal pocket.” These pockets act as deep, anaerobic reservoirs for bacteria, inaccessible to any toothbrush. The clinician also notes whether the gums bleed upon probing (a sign of active, microscopic inflammation) and checks for furcation exposure—areas where the bone has eroded enough to expose the space between the roots of multi-rooted teeth.

Dental Radiographs (X-rays)

Full-mouth intraoral dental radiographs are the undisputed gold standard for diagnosing feline dental disease. Without X-rays, veterinary dentistry is largely guesswork. High-definition digital dental X-rays allow the veterinarian to look straight through the gum tissue and alveolar bone to visualize the root structure of every tooth. These radiographs reveal critical hidden pathologies, including horizontal and vertical bone loss, periapical lucencies (dark halos around the root tip indicating a tooth root abscess), and retained root fragments from previously fractured teeth. Crucially, radiographs are the only way to definitively diagnose Type 1 and Type 2 Feline Tooth Resorption (FORLs), a painful and incredibly common condition in cats where the body aggressively reabsorbs the tooth root, turning it into bone.^[14]

Dental Charting

Every piece of data gathered during the visual inspection, periodontal probing, and radiographic evaluation is meticulously documented on a formalized feline dental chart. Veterinarians utilize the Modified Triadan System, a universal anatomical numbering system that assigns a specific three-digit code to every tooth in the cat’s mouth. The upper right quadrant is the 100 series, the upper left is 200, the lower left is 300, and the lower right is 400. By recording pocket depths, missing teeth, gingival recession measurements, mobility grades, and the presence of dental fractures on this chart, the veterinarian creates a permanent, detailed medical record. This precise charting allows the veterinary team to formulate an exact treatment plan and serves as a vital reference point to track the progression or resolution of the disease during future dental procedures.^[15]

Anesthesia and Oral Examination

It is paramount to understand that performing these diagnostic steps on an awake or lightly sedated cat is physically impossible, highly dangerous, and fiercely condemned by the American Veterinary Dental College (AVDC). Proper diagnosis requires the cat to be under full general anesthesia with an endotracheal tube securely placed in the trachea. This tube serves a dual purpose: it delivers precise amounts of inhaled anesthesia and oxygen, and it physically blocks the airway, preventing the cat from inhaling the massive influx of bacteria-laden water generated by the ultrasonic scaling equipment. Throughout the examination, dedicated veterinary technicians continuously monitor the cat’s vital parameters, including blood pressure, electrocardiogram (EKG), end-tidal carbon dioxide, oxygen saturation (SpO2), and core body temperature, ensuring the safest possible diagnostic environment.^[16]

Treatment for Feline Periodontal Disease

Once a definitive diagnosis and staging of the periodontal disease have been established, the veterinarian will proceed immediately into the treatment phase. In veterinary medicine, this combined diagnostic and therapeutic approach is formally known as a Comprehensive Oral Health Assessment and Treatment (COHAT). The specific interventions selected will depend entirely on the severity of the disease affecting each individual tooth. A single cat may have perfectly healthy incisors requiring only a light cleaning, while simultaneously possessing severely diseased molars requiring advanced surgical intervention.

Professional Teeth Cleaning

For teeth affected by Stage 1 or early Stage 2 periodontal disease, professional cleaning is the primary therapeutic tool. The procedure begins with the use of a high-frequency ultrasonic scaler. The rapidly vibrating tip of the scaler shatters the rock-hard calculus on the visible crown of the tooth while simultaneously spraying a continuous stream of water to flush away debris and cool the tooth surface, preventing thermal damage to the internal pulp. However, the most critical step of the cleaning process is subgingival scaling—the meticulous removal of plaque and tartar from beneath the gumline using specialized hand curettes. After all calculus is removed, the enamel is thoroughly polished using a mild abrasive paste. Polishing is not for cosmetic shine; the scaling process leaves microscopic scratches on the enamel. If left unpolished, these microscopic grooves provide a perfect, high-friction surface for new bacteria to latch onto, dramatically accelerating the return of periodontal disease.^[17]

Feline Tooth Extraction

When periodontal disease advances to Stage 3 or Stage 4, causing greater than 50 percent attachment loss, severe root exposure, or profound tooth mobility, extraction is often the only medically appropriate and humane treatment. Leaving a dead, infected, and highly mobile tooth in the mouth condemns the cat to a life of chronic pain and systemic bacterial showering. Feline tooth extraction is a delicate surgical procedure, not a simple pulling of a tooth. The veterinarian must often use a scalpel to create a mucogingival flap, peeling back the gum tissue to expose the jawbone. Using a high-speed surgical drill, the veterinarian carefully burrs away a window of the buccal (cheek-side) bone to access the delicate, often brittle roots. Multi-rooted teeth, like the upper fourth premolar, are sectioned into individual pieces using a diamond burr to allow for safe, atraumatic removal. Once the infected roots are completely removed and the empty socket is flushed with an antiseptic solution, the gum tissue is laid back down and sutured closed with fine, absorbable suture material, ensuring rapid, pain-free healing.^[18]

Prescribed Antibiotics

While antibiotics are a valuable tool in the veterinary arsenal, they are not a cure for periodontal disease and are never used as a substitute for professional mechanical cleaning and surgical extraction. In cases of mild to moderate gingivitis, systemic antibiotics are generally avoided to promote responsible antimicrobial stewardship and prevent the development of drug-resistant superbugs. However, in cases involving severe osteomyelitis (infection of the bone), severe ulcerative stomatitis, or in cats with compromised immune systems, targeted prescription systemic antibiotics may be administered. These medications help reduce the bacterial load in the soft tissues and prevent the spread of infection through the bloodstream during the post-operative healing phase.

Periodontal Therapy

In highly specific, moderate cases (typically early Stage 3), where there is significant pocket formation but the tooth root remains structurally sound and immobile, advanced periodontal therapy may be attempted to save the tooth. After rigorous subgingival scaling and root planing, the veterinarian may instill a localized, sustained-release veterinary antimicrobial treatment directly into the periodontal pocket. As the treatment sets, it occupies the pocket space, physically preventing food and bacteria from re-entering while slowly releasing antibiotic medication into the surrounding tissue over several weeks. This can reduce inflammation, encourage the reattachment of the gingival tissues to the tooth root, and effectively halt the progression of the disease in that specific location.

Pain Management

Managing the profound pain associated with both the disease itself and the subsequent surgical interventions is a paramount priority during a COHAT. Modern veterinary dentistry employs a multi-modal approach to pain management. Before any surgical extraction begins, the veterinarian administers regional nerve blocks—applying a long-acting local anesthetic directly around the major facial nerves (such as the infraorbital or inferior alveolar nerves). This completely numbs the surgical quadrant, preventing pain signals from ever reaching the cat’s brain and allowing the anesthesiologist to use lower, safer doses of general anesthesia. Following the procedure, the cat will typically receive prescription anti-inflammatory medication administered by your veterinarian to drastically reduce tissue swelling. Finally, a course of highly effective prescription pain medication will be sent home with the owner to ensure the cat remains completely comfortable during the critical 3 to 7-day post-operative recovery window.^[19]

Home Dental Maintenance

The successful treatment of periodontal disease does not end when the cat wakes up from anesthesia; it transitions directly into a lifelong home maintenance program. Immediately following a dental procedure with extractions, the owner must feed the cat a strict diet of soft, canned food or water-soaked kibble for 10 to 14 days to protect the delicate sutures inside the mouth from tearing. Hard toys and abrasive treats must be withheld during this healing period. Once the veterinarian examines the mouth at a post-operative recheck and confirms that the extraction sites have fully healed, the owner will be guided on how to implement a long-term, daily dental hygiene routine designed to prevent the recurrence of plaque and calculus on the remaining healthy teeth.

How to Prevent Gum Disease in Cats?

Because periodontal disease is driven by the daily, continuous accumulation of bacterial plaque, preventing it requires a proactive, daily commitment from the pet owner. While genetics and age cannot be altered, the environmental factors within the mouth can be strictly controlled. The cornerstone of preventative care is routine mechanical disruption of the biofilm before it has the opportunity to mineralize into tartar. Here are the most effective strategies for maintaining your cat’s oral health:

1. Routine Dental Maintenance (Brushing): The absolute gold standard for preventing periodontal disease is daily toothbrushing. Using a soft-bristled, cat-specific toothbrush or a silicone finger brush, owners should gently massage the outside surfaces of the teeth in circular motions. It is critical to use enzymatic toothpaste formulated specifically for pets; human toothpaste contains fluoride and xylitol, which are highly toxic to cats and cause severe gastrointestinal and neurological distress. Start by introducing the toothpaste as a treat, gradually working up to brushing over a period of weeks to make it a positive, stress-free routine.
2. Dental Diets and Snacks: Nutrition plays a massive role in oral hygiene. Standard cat kibble does little to clean teeth. However, specific veterinary dental diets are engineered with an interlocking fiber matrix that does not immediately shatter upon biting. Instead, the tooth penetrates the kibble, allowing the kibble to physically wipe the plaque off the tooth surface, much like a squeegee. Look for products bearing the Veterinary Oral Health Council (VOHC) Seal of Acceptance, which guarantees clinical efficacy in retarding plaque and tartar.
3. Water Supplements: Specialized water additives containing specific antibacterial and plaque-reducing ingredients or targeted enzymes can be seamlessly integrated into your cat’s daily water bowl. These tasteless additives alter the chemical environment of the mouth, making it difficult for anaerobic bacteria to reproduce and inhibiting the rapid mineralization of plaque into calculus.
4. Routine Veterinary Appointments: Annual wellness exams are vital, but for cats with a history of dental issues, semi-annual check-ups may be necessary. During these visits, the veterinarian can assess the gingival index, look for early signs of inflammation, and intervene before irreversible bone loss occurs. Always consult your veterinarian before making any changes to your pet’s care, diet, or supplementation.
5. Professional Dental Cleanings (COHAT): Even with perfect daily brushing, professional cleanings under anesthesia are eventually necessary for most cats. Just as humans require professional hygienist visits despite brushing twice a day, cats require deep subgingival scaling to remove the tartar that inevitably builds up in hard-to-reach areas. Establishing a frequency for these cleanings—whether annually or every two years—depends entirely on your cat’s individual rate of tartar accumulation.
6. Observe Oral Health: Vigilance at home is key. Regularly flip your cat’s lips up to look at the back molars. Monitor for bad breath, red gums, or subtle changes in eating behavior. Catching these signs early can save teeth that would otherwise be lost to progressive disease.
7. Dental Toys and Enrichment: Providing safe, appropriately sized chew toys can stimulate the gums, encourage the production of naturally protective saliva, and provide mild mechanical abrasion. However, avoid extremely hard objects like bones or antlers, as these frequently cause painful slab fractures of the upper premolars.

Frequently Asked Questions

How quickly does periodontal disease progress in cats?

The progression rate of periodontal disease varies dramatically from one cat to another. It is heavily influenced by a combination of individual genetics, immune system competence, diet, and the presence or absence of daily home dental care. In some highly susceptible cats, such as specific purebreds or those suffering from immune-suppressing viruses, mild gingivitis can aggressively accelerate into severe Stage 4 periodontitis with profound bone loss within just 12 to 18 months. In other cats, the disease may smolder at a low-grade Stage 2 for many years. Without routine professional intervention and daily brushing, the continuous presence of plaque guarantees that the disease will slowly but surely destroy the tooth’s supporting structures over time.

Is general anesthesia safe for older cats requiring dental procedures?

A common, yet dangerous, misconception is that older cats are “too old for anesthesia.” Age itself is not a disease. While anesthesia always carries a baseline risk, modern veterinary protocols make it exceptionally safe, even for geriatric felines. Before any procedure, a senior cat undergoes comprehensive pre-anesthetic bloodwork, urinalysis, and often a cardiac evaluation (EKG or echocardiogram) to ensure their organs can process the anesthetic drugs. Tailored, low-dose anesthetic protocols, continuous fluid support, thermal regulation, and dedicated multiparameter monitoring by skilled technicians mitigate the risks. Ultimately, the systemic toll and agonizing pain of leaving severe, rotting dental disease untreated are vastly more dangerous to a senior cat’s overall health and longevity than a meticulously managed anesthetic event.

Can wet food cause more dental disease than dry food?

The belief that standard dry kibble cleans a cat’s teeth and wet food rots them is largely a myth. Plaque is a sticky, bacterial biofilm that forms independently of the food’s texture. When a cat eats standard dry kibble, the brittle pieces shatter at the very tip of the tooth crown, offering zero abrasive action at the gumline where periodontal disease actually begins. In fact, the carbohydrate residue from dry food can feed oral bacteria. While wet food does not provide any mechanical abrasion, neither does standard dry food. The only diets proven to mechanically clean teeth are specifically engineered veterinary dental diets with VOHC-approved interlocking fiber matrices. Therefore, proper dental hygiene, including daily brushing and routine professional cleanings, is universally mandatory regardless of whether your cat consumes a predominantly wet or dry diet.

References

1. American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). Pet Dental Care. AVMA, 2023.
2. Merck Veterinary Manual. Periodontal Disease in Small Animals. Merck & Co., Inc., 2022.
3. Cornell Feline Health Center. Feline Dental Disease. Cornell University, 2019.
4. VCA Animal Hospitals. Dental Disease in Cats. VCA, 2021.
5. Kortegaard HE, et al. Periodontal disease in research beagle dogs – an epidemiological study. J Small Anim Pract. PubMed, 2008. (Extrapolated for small animal oral pathogenesis)
6. ASPCA. Cat Dental Care. American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, 2020.
7. American Veterinary Dental College (AVDC). Periodontal Disease. AVDC, 2023.
8. VCA Animal Hospitals. Feline Leukemia Virus Disease Complex. VCA, 2022.
9. Wiggs RB, Lobprise HB. Periodontology. Veterinary Dentistry Principles and Practice. PubMed Central, 1997.
10. Merck Veterinary Manual. Diabetes Mellitus in Dogs and Cats. Merck & Co., Inc., 2022.
11. World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA). Global Dental Guidelines. WSAVA, 2020.
12. American Animal Hospital Association (AAHA). Dental Care Guidelines for Dogs and Cats. AAHA, 2019.
13. DuPont GA. Prevention of periodontal disease. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. PubMed, 1998.
14. VCA Animal Hospitals. Tooth Resorption in Cats. VCA, 2021.
15. American Veterinary Dental College (AVDC). Veterinary Dental Nomenclature and Charting. AVDC, 2022.
16. Veterinary Oral Health Council (VOHC). Position Statement on Anesthesia-Free Dentistry. VOHC, 2021.
17. American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). Antimicrobial Stewardship in Companion Animal Practice. AVMA, 2022.
18. VCA Animal Hospitals. Tooth Extraction in Cats. VCA, 2022.
19. Beckman B. Regional nerve blocks for oral surgery in companion animals. J Vet Dent. PubMed, 2012.